Pairs

Aristotle

before 300 BC, theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality

Wilhelm Wundt

founder of the first psychology lab in the world, 1879

structuralism

school of psychology using introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

functionalism

school of psychology focusing on how our mental and behavioural processes function

introspection

looking inwards at oneself for enlightenment

Edward Titchener

major theorist in structuralism

William James

major theorist in functionalism

adaptation

changing of one's characteristics to avoid negative consequences or follow the most promising positive consequences

Sigmund Freud

famed personality and theorist who developed a definition of human personality

behaviourism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behaviour without reference to mental processes

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

cognitive neuroscience

the inter-disciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

John B. Watson

major behaviourist theorist

Carl Rogers

major humanistic psych theorist

Abraham Maslow

other major humanistic psych theorist

psychology

the science of behaviour and mental processes

behaviour

anything an organism does

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences we infer from behaviour

nature-nurture

the controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of pscyhological traits and behaviours

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Charles Darwin

famous theorist who argues that natural selection shapes behaviours as well as bodies

Rene Descartes

early theorist who believed in some innate ideas (nature)

John Locke

early theorist who rejected the idea of innate ideas (nurture)

biopsychosocial approach

the integrated viewpoint incorporating various levels of analysis and offering a more complete picture of any given behaviour or mental process; includes biological influences, psychological influences and socio-cultural influences

neuroscience

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

evolution

how the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes

behaviour genetics

how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

psychodynamic

how behaviour springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

cognition

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

socio-cultural

how behaviour and thinking vary across situations

counseling

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders

hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

scientific method

self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature's answers

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

illusory correlation

perceived but nonexistent correlation

experiment

research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process

experimental group

the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment

control group

the group that is not exposed to the treatment in an experiment

descriptive research

to observe and record behaviour

correlational research

to detect naturally occurring relationships

experimental research

to explore cause and effect

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA

complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

culture

the enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behaviour

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

collectivism

giving priority to goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

aggression

physical or verbal behaviour intended to hurt someone

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

biological psychology

branch of psych concerned with the links between biology and behaviour

neuron

a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neuron

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neuron

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons

action potential

a neural impulse, or brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitter

chemical messenger that cross the synaptic gap between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

acetylcholine

drug that enables muscle action, learning and memory

dopamine

drug that influences movement, learning attention, and emotion

serotonin

drug that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal

norepinephrine

drug that helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

drug that is a mjaor inhibitory neurotransmitter

glutamate

drug that is a major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

sympathetic NS

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic NS

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's slow chemical communication system

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland

lesion

tissue destruction

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface

PET scan

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue

fMRI

technique for revealing bloodflow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainsteml it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

the little brain at the rear of the brainstem, functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

this neural system sits between the brain's older pans and its cerebral hemispheres

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus, directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

corpus callosum

axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

cerebral cortex

ultimate control and information-processing center

hippocampus

linked to memory

spinal cord

pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from brain, controls simple reflexes

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and i'm making plans and judgements

parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear, receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

plasticity

the brain's ability to change

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perceptiong, memory, or response

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detectiong 50 percent of the time

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

hue

dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the coloured portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable colour vision

audition

the sense or act of hearing

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

gestalt

an organized whole

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional, allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

monocular cues

depth cues available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent colour, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

ESP

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and pscyhokinesis

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

circadian rhythm

the biological clock, regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

sleep

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviours will spontaneously occur

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviours to occur simultaneously with others

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, which speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

ecstasy (MDMA)

ecstasy

MDMA

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen

hallucinogen

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death